Jazz Music between World Wars Essay Example for Free

Jazz Music amongst World Wars EssayThe malarky craze in medical specialty during the twenties reflected a general spirit of the times for many commentators like Seldes that this decade became known as the Jazz bestride. Following World War I, do it medication for certain captured the habitual imagination. The rapid frequentity of live medicinal drug led to its equally rapid spread among histrions. No other style up to this time in American touristed medicine so quickly came to dominate usual performance. The American jargon, which had already made significant inroads into the commercial prevalent music market, had captured popular tastes at an unprecedented level, seemingly sweeping aside the octogenarian standards. And just as ragtime and syncopate dance music became part of earlier commercial popular music, the dominance of have sex in the 1920s also represented a major triumph of the black vernacular in American popular music. The lie with craze began thro ugh the influence of non- passkey musicians. While still marginal to most legitimate venues, non- professed(prenominal) musicians performing the jazz vernacular were attracting audiences to clubs, theaters, restaurants, and were popular in the speakeasies of the 1920s.They also had opportunities for their music to reach a broader audience in a booming record market following World War I. Professional musicians, however, quickly adopted jazz music in their orchestras and smaller curings. They co-opted the jazz fever while simultaneously distancing themselves from non- passkeys. (Charters, 39-43) By occupying the most lucrative jobs in theaters, dance halls, hotels, and other venues, professional musicians positioned themselves as the premier interpreters of this new vernacular idiom in commercial popular music.The common defense of jazz as sizeable music during the Jazz Age embraced the professional musicians and professional composers who performed and created jazz music, not the non-professional musicians who first introduced it. In adopting jazz idioms, professional musicians were simply continuing the process of cultivating the American vernacular. Black professional musicians were already adopting black vernacular idioms in their music making in earlier syncopated society orchestras and simply adopted jazz idioms as well as the name in their jazz orchestras.(Bushell, 72-75) White professional musicians had performed rags as part of their repertoire in the past, but with the jazz craze, many were quick to adopt syncopated dance and jazz practices in some form as the defining style of their profession. White professional musicians also quickly followed black professional musicians in transforming their bands into jazz orchestras, and just as quickly claimed to be the modern proponents of this new American popular music.Black and white professional jazz orchestras in the 1920s established the basic instrumentation, arrangement, and techniques of the big ban d dance orchestras that dominated American popular music until the 1950s. In the 1920s, an emerging new standard of good music involved a balancing of the previous cultivate practices and cultivated music of professional musicians with popular vernacular idioms. The proper balance, however, was hotly debated. Professional musicians would constantly distance themselves from the pure vernacular of non-professional musicians.In defending their balance of the cultivated and the vernacular in popular performance, popular tastes, however, were demanding jazz music and a professional musician would be remiss to ignore his patrons in the popular music market as much as stodgy critics and some professional musicians would rail against the injurious influence of jazz. Professional musicians in mediating the popular music market had to continue to navigate the moralistic, aesthetic, class, and racial construction of good music in America.While popular tastes in musical pleasure promoted the black vernacular in commercial popular music, the plight of the African American community in the United States go along to be dire. Some leaders in the black community had hoped that African Americans participation during World War I in both the military and in industry, and the immense Migration out of the Jim Crow South, would change their fortunes as segregated and oppressed second class citizens. The post-war years, however, dashed most hopes of any immediate positive change.(DeVeaux, 6-29) unravel relations went in the opposite direction. Race riots sp unthawg up across the nation while lynching continue to be a regular occurrence. Efforts continued to unafraid the legal segregation of black communities, and the labor movement continued to exclude blacks. The Ku Klux Klan reached its peak membership and popularity during the 1920s. The segregation and denigration of the black community was also reflected in the social organization of American music.(Hansen, 493-97) Bes ides the segregation of audiences and most venues, black professional musicians also remained outside the artistic community of white professional musicians in terms of unions, band organizations, and this communitys vision of a professional class of artist in America. The balance of the cultivated and the vernacular among professional musicians also continued to run against elitist conceptions of popular music and popular musicians as less legitimate than the music, musicians, and composers of the European cultivated tradition of classical and opera music.Black professional musicians also continued to strive to break through the barriers erected against them in the world of European cultivated music. This continuing tension in the implied lower status of professional musicians who performed American popular music erupted during the Jazz Age into an open rebellion against the European cultivated tradition. Professional musicians in jazz orchestras plan of attacked to counter the si ngular role claimed by the European cultivated tradition.These musicians asserted that jazz was a true American or African American school of fine art music in contrast to cultivated European music a populist appeal for high art authenticity. This high art turn in American popular music, however, ultimately failed when the depression wreaked havoc on the popular music market. With the introduction of a new popular music market of live performances, records, broadcasts, and films, the quest for legitimacy among professional popular musicians would have to take another route.It was a period where professional popular musicians in adopting the jazz vernacular went against the reigning cultural power structure in America. (Peretti, 234-40) The period following World War I was a crucial turning point in American popular music. The American vernacular in general was storming the ramparts of the old edifice of good music as Tin Pan Alley song and dance dominated popular performance. both( prenominal) professional and nonprofessional musicians also were benefiting from more affluent times and the growing importance of entertainment in the lives of most urban Americans. To the chagrin of elite and moral defenders of nineteenth century cultural idealism, most urban Americans were readily joining a Cultural Revolution in commercial popular entertainment. And at the warmheartedness of this revolution was the national craze for jazz music and jazz dance. The jazz craze made syncopated rhythms and other black vernacular idioms central elements of American popular music making.While many small jazz bands performed a black vernacular style of music from the Delta Region of New Orleans, jazz music in the 1920s encompassed not only this style but syncopated dance music, blues music, piano rags, and virtually any tune jazzed up by musicians. The jazz craze in essence was the craze for the black vernacular among popular audiences and the performance of this vernacular in some fo rm by popular musicians and popular singers both professional and non-professional.The extent to which musicians and singers actually adopted the black vernacular rather than a superficial imitation critique later jazz critics would make of certain sweet jazz during the 1920s is less important than the fact that jazz entered the consciousness of the nation and musicians as the reigning popular music. The discourse Jazz seems to have found a permanent place in the vocabulary of popular music. It was used originally as an adjective describing a band that in playing for dancing were so infected with their own rhythm that they themselves executed as much, if not more, contortions than the dancers.The popularity of the raggy music has created a demand for music with overdraw syncopation, an attempt as it were to produce the wonderful broken rhythms of the primitive African jungle orchestra. The jazz craze also coincided with the growth of black entertainment. During the 1920s, black entertainment districts like the South Side in Chicago and Harlem in New York City witnessed a major boom. Besides entertaining the large black populations of The Great Migration, black musicians and singers were entertaining white audiences who went uptown for their entertainment.The boom in the 1920s in black entertainment, as Kenny (1993, 89-92) and Shaw (1987, 122-30) show, was driven by the demand for the black vernacular. In musical theater, musical revues, vaudeville, dance, and speakeasies, the black vernacular and black artists were in demand. This demand was met not only in black entertainment districts, but also outside these districts as black artists performed for white audiences in musical revues, dance halls, and clubs in white entertainment districts.The popularity of the black vernacular also increased when record producers detect a race market in black music. Most members of the New England School of cultivated music like Mason, and other defenders of the old idea l of good music, were stridently against the influence of jazz in both popular music and classical music. Repeating the moral, aesthetic, class, and racial epithets used to condemn the popularization of vernacular jazz, the guardians of the old ideal ridiculed any idea of jazz meriting the status of high art or even having an influence on serious music composition and performance.As David Stanley Smith, Professor of Music at Yale University, argued in The Musician of August 1926, jazz musics monotonous rhythm, as unvaried as the chug-chug of a steam engine, enslaves its practitioners within a formula, and induces in composer, performer, and listener a stupor of mind and emotion. On the other hand, many of those individuals who embraced modernism in cultivated music were sympathetic to jazz music.These modernists evince jazz as the legitimate expression of the times and a nation. (Stewart, 102-109) The debate within the cultivated tradition surrounded by old idealists and modernis ts on the influence of jazz revolved mainly around the influence of popular jazz on serious music composition and performance. That the question would be posed in much(prenominal) a manner spoke to how, by the 1920s, the European cultivated tradition had organizationally and ideologically broken from the world of commercial popular music.Crossover between popular music and cultivated music occurred during the 1920s, but organizational and ideological barriers left little chance that jazz musicians would transform the cultivated tradition. The very brass of a separate world of cultivated music in the United States was predicated on its trait from commercial popular music, popular musicians, and popular tastes a distinction further exacerbated by jazz music being an expression of the black vernacular.The influence of jazz within the cultivated tradition, however, was debated during the 1920s as professional musicians move claim to a truly American art form and modernists promoted the incorporation of jazz in serious music composition and performance. (Badger, 48-67) Traditionalists, of course, had reason to be positive as the economic depression following the 1929 stock market crash wreaked havoc on the commercial market of popular jazz music.Defenders of the European cultivated tradition also had reason to celebrate as the confident proclamations of professional musicians on jazz as Americas first authentic art receded to the background as these musicians adjusted to changed economic circumstances and a new popular music market. Professional musicians struggle for legitimacy during the Jazz Age, however, laid the ideological and musical founding upon which the next generation of professional musicians would construct a modern jazz paradigm.In their quest for legitimacy as professional artists, they were the first popular artists to attempt to transform the moral, aesthetic, class, and racial constructions of the old ideal of good music in America. While their efforts contained their own complicity in manners of distinction, the contradictions of an elite populism embedded in a racist culture, they did struggle to create an option understanding of art and society in America.As the self-appointed mediators of the American vernacular, professional musicians and composers ardently worked to construct an alternative form of good music to that of the European cultivated music tradition a music reflecting in some fashion the world of popular audiences and popular tastes. ( DeVeaux, 525-40) In this process of syncretism, the reinvention and reinterpretation of musical idioms and practices, these artists created the American big band dance orchestra and the Tin Pan Alley song that dominated American popular music until the middle of the twentieth century.While jazz did not become a universally recognized American high art form during the Jazz Age, professional musicians and composers transformed it into legitimate popular art music, altho ugh at the expense of those non-professional vernacular musicians who did not assimilate into their profession. The need for professional musicians to legitimate popular dance orchestras disappeared afterward the 1920s, and the old ideal of good music no longer occupied this professional class of musician.(Gioia, 213-20) The emergence of an alternative ideal of good music among professional musicians signaled a final separation between popular music making and the cultivated tradition in American music. This break was both ideological and virtual(a) a reflection of both a new professional ethos among professional musicians and the culmination of the division in the social organization of American music between the world of popular music and the world of European cultivated music.(Lopes, 25-36) The previous crisscrossing professionally between the cultivated tradition and popular music making was no longer part of this profession. The future big band leaders and musicians of the Sw ing Era began their professional careers not in symphonies, but in the small jazz ensembles and jazz orchestras of the Jazz Age. The fate of jazz was seemed threatened by the power over popular music of a new mass media industry of broadcasts, recordings, and film. however when the fortunes of jazz seemed dead and buried, however, the swing craze reignited popular interest in the cultivated jazz vernacular.(Hennessey, 156-60) The promotion of sweet music and the subsequent swing craze, however, stage set in motion a new distinction within the profession of musician. No longer than singularly obsessed with the world of European cultivated music, professional musicians who assimilated the black jazz vernacular now viewed sweet music as their more direct nemesis. The race and class boundaries articulated in the old ideal of good music were now articulated more directly for professional musicians in the distinction between the popular music cultures of sweet and swing.

Market structures in practice at Unilever deviate

foodstuff grammatical constructions in practice at Unilever deviateMarket structure is the manner in which a connection experience challenger during the delivery of goods and services. The structures be very dynamic and both extremes do exist dep end on the market in which adept is operating and the type of goods being dealt with. The theoretically existing market structures argon perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. Out of these existing market structures, it is not realiz fitting to single issue one to be prevailing in the Unilever products market. This so because there is no clear cut differentiating between them. However, perfect competition is a far much distinct structure from the another(prenominal) three structures. Unilever has a wide range of its consumer products in distribution globewide. The corporations complexities in system of rulesal structure join with an luxurious portfolio of products deliver made the Unilever com pany operate in all market structures except perfect competition.Perfect competition prevails when there atomic number 18 galore(postnominal) sellers and buyers present in a market. This means that no single player allow bring much influence in the entire market. The presence, withdrawal or change of dodge by a distributor in this market structure has an insignifi butt endt fix in price and demand. The market forces are left-hand(a) to take their full swing operation. In this market, the consumers view all products to be identical thus selection of a product to be purchased is indiscriminate. However, this is not causa in approximately phratry consumer products. Consumers are very sensitive in the selection of such products, especially those that affect their health and general appearance. The earlier mentioned expansive portfolio of Unilever house hold products affects the final consumers health and appearance. This effects either instant or long term are evident in its adv ertising guideword adding vitality to life. By considering the corporations profile, Unilever is not the type in which its presence in the market basisnot be felt by fellow competitors as well as consumers. Therefore, saying that a perfect competition is the kind of market structure in which Unilever is operating will be a complete fallacy.Monopolistic competition prevails when there are few restrictions to the entry of the market. The presence of a corporation in the market will therefore be determined by it creativeness and ability to overcome the few existing restriction. Such restrictions may not necessarily be stinting but rather anything which may retard the step-up and performance of a player in that particular market. The many companies operating in this kind of market structure assimilate little to influence since they have small market share. Unilevers market share give the sacknot be generalized as small globally but rather tremendously variable. It is dependent on geographic diversification characterized by expansion and venturing into emerging markets. The aspect of small market share may not be entirely drop downed but can be stated as a fairly potential scenario to occur. This is evident in the penetration in to the new markets already colonized by competitors as well as situations where others are proving too strong to eat into the corporations market share. The products in this case are very distinct thus one can easily differentiate between products of different companies. The Unilever products can easily be identified and are available in a large sea of household products from which a consumer chooses from. The marketing strategists in Unilever must therefore apply non-price competition strategies. Advertising is the most common non-price strategy available for Unilever, where fellow market players have close substitutes of its products. Another tool in use by the corporation is the rolling out of an intriguing research and developm ent program which has seen it deliver the most optimal innovative designs of products. All these characteristics describe a monopolistic competition which becomes one of the prevailing market structures.Oligopolistic market structure exists when a few soaked dominate market and thus enjoys a majority of market revenue. This is evident in its market share which according to Fortune 500 list of large companies in Europe, it revenue was at $ 45,679 million which placed them at fifty-fourth slot in the year 2000. This commanding market share coupled with European wedding stringent standardization rules makes it hard for new products to hit the market. TheMonopoly on the other hand means that there is only one supplier. Therefore there is no competition expected. The sole supplier dictates the prices, supply quantities and the quality control. This hypothetical structure hardly prevails unless there are influences from regulators like governments and other authorities empowered by pact s and international agreements. There are high barriers making it totally im likely for other firms to enter the market. It is hard to experience this kind of a market structure currently. It can only be seen in specialized products addressd by the government due to their nature to influence the national security. We can therefore confidently dismiss this structure to be non-existing in Unilevers products.To sum it all, all market structures except monopoly are in practice at Unilever. However the perfect monopolistic structure carries less weight because the cumulative market share of this corporation is big enough to shake off potential high caliber competitor. Any organization interested in the manufacture and distribution of household goods can only do best by either franchising or merging with Unilever. The consolidation of European resources by means of European Unions elimination of trade barriers and restrictions has come up with far reaching opportunities as well as setb acks for main stream organizations. For Unilever, it is a broad milestone as it is for other multinational organizations to see different regions bilk in to agreements of forming trading blocs. The usually complex management structure can be simplified with with(predicate) creation of regional emplacements. The basis of such regional offices is going to be the preset blocs.Relationship between market forces and Unilevers responseMarket forces are the demand and supply which is a reflection of all price-conscious sellers and buyers of the products available in the market. The desires of sellers and buyers are in the two extreme ends. Sellers will want the highest possible prices while buyers want to own the goods for free if possible. Since taking goods freely is not possible they are therefore asking for minimum prices possible. The price is expected to go up with an increase in demand while an excess supply will make the price to fall. Such varied desires constitute never endi ng market forces. It is worth to note that the market forces are only possible when there are no external interferences.The already mentioned rich portfolio of Unilever products can be fructify into the following categories washing powder and detergents, beverages and butter and margarine. These products must attract many buyers as well as producers being the fast moving consumer goods demanded by buyers daily. In fact the demand is poised to rise given the ever rising populations of the world accompanied by rapid urbanization.It is the dream of every organization in business to make profit and reduce cash outflows as much as possible. Unilever being no exception has put in a lot of efforts to stay up beat so as to maintain and grow its market share both in Europe and global market. We are now exploring its response to such dynamic challenges accompanying variations in market forces, the actual effects in revenue and long term reputation of the corporation.The corporation has a del iberate effort to guard its market share. The main strength of Unilever is the expansive geographical diversification of its products. These will translate to the final returns because the poor results of one region are likely to be cushioned by those of the other. To illustrate this, the corporation was in operation in eighty eight different countries in the year 2002. Management teams in every region were given decision making autonomy so that the products available for distribution in their respective regions are tailor made to just meet the consumer needs. This brilliant approach ensures the avoidance of obsolescence as well as delivery of the most relevant goods in the market. stipendiary worry to human not deadly(p) offers enormous opportunity to the long term strategy of the corporation. This global organization believes that a highly motivated human capital is going to impact positively on the general outlook. It is this reason therefore that has made the company to inves t on human resources development through enlisting and training of employees from varied disciplines and qualifications. To ensure that every talent in the society is utilized one can enter the companys amazing human resource through graduate trainee program or specialized skill direct entry.Another notable strategy which may look more of welfare establish than economical is the formulation and implementation of a well detailed safety, health and environmental policy. This has a lasting perspective and a wide heighten beyond what can be immediately seen. However, there are short term benefits of this. An employee who is always safety conscious is going to deliver better results than the other who has no attention to safety. It is as well as worth noting that some economic blogs like the European Union cannot accept a companys products if there is not practical move to conserve and encourage the environment. The most recent example is the black tea sourcing sustainability commitm ent which came by through the certification by Rain Forest Alliance. Among the immediate benefits of this tea sourcing sustainably, Unilever has been able to launch its Rain Forest Alliance compliant tea in the European market.The years of poor performances globally prompted the organization to embark on an ambitious path to growth strategy in the year 2000. The strategy has specific action points to be discussed next. First of all, the ambiguity surrounding the amorphous number of brands was eliminated through the drop-off of brands to the four hundred most important core products. The unsuccessful brands were successfully removed from the market which led to the increase in sales of the slide by brands from 75% to 93%.The corporation has been able to also tap from emerging markets by penetrating those which are already colonized by the competitors such as Procter Gamble, Nestle and Kraft Foods. Among the major advantages of Unilever is it ability to carry out research and ident ify the consumer trends of needs. With this information at hand, the response is efforts to cater for them. sightly to illustrate this proactive approach, the major concerns in the world of late are nutrition and weight. Majority of the people are currently shifting their focus to ways of living healthier lifestyles. So as to move in tandem with this trend Unilever acquired Slimfast, an organization offering weight management services and nutritional consultancy. The intense competition go about worldwide has necessitated the Corporations top management to make acquisitions. The top acquisitions are Ben Jerry, Slimfast and Best Foods among other twenty worldwide. This ability to make enormous acquisitions and conglomerate firms have put it self in a position to enable itself enjoy competitive advantage. The corporation saved EUR750 in cost and operating margins rise by 15.7 per cent in the first three quarters.The Unilever is carefully working unitedly the Competition Commissi on so as to achieve a balance between their profits and legitimacy. smasher a balance has been a headache for both parties bearing in mind their varied intention of promoting competition. Competition Commission will always hit to provide a fair play ground for the players in a given industry. It ensures also that no one takes unfair advantage by strong the final consumer. To achieve this, the commission closely monitors the interaction of competitors and partners in the market. The changes in businesses set up including concentrations through mergers and takeovers are very useful so as to eliminate the competition among the players in the market. The resent proposed acquisition of United States based Sara Lees body and laundry division by the Unilever is being reviewed in line with European Union Merger Regulation. The commission seeks to establish the ultimate effects of shelf prices of these products after the elimination of competing suppliers of a good number of household cle aning products. by such a strategy, the corporation is able to wade off expenses that could have resulted from competition and huge advertisement. However, if this is viewed as move to club together and drive others out of business it will be totally unacceptable and the commission is going to advice the relevant bodies accordingly. Sanctions and license suspension may the worst penalties that the company can get if found guilty. But leaving alone this pessimistic approach of the role of competition Commission, there are a lot to be achieved.The corporations expansion strategy has seen it adopt an earlier mentioned path-to-growth master plan aimed at growing it market share. Its unrivalled enormous infrastructure has played a paramount role in venturing into emerging markets. The other strategy has been the focus on the internal structures of management and building of global leadership. A well oiled management machine has been achieved through internalization of the concept of gro wth by every member of the management team. The history of this company shows us that it is a merger of two companies based in United Kingdom and the Netherlands. With this foundation, there has been need to cluster the two head offices resulting in a simpler organizational structure. A fast decision making and modify accountability can only be achieved through the continuous improvement of organizational structure.Importance of foreign international trade, economic integration and global markets in Unilevers businessInternational trade is the exchange of goods and services through the b ranges. This type of business has formed the firm foundation in the modern business world because the manufacturers and distributors attempt to gain from a wider market rather than looking at their own borders. Each and every firm intending to throw its nets wide must focus on the globalization of its marketing and distribution operations. The foreseeable constraints of venturing into international trade are deeply rooted in the standardizations and trade barriers formed through economic integrations and blocs formations. Many economies have leant that they cannot effectively compete with the do-it-alone approach. Therefore there is a rise in regional economies coming together and forming a bigger economy. This sort and regrouping of states have a huge impact on the social, political and most important economic dimensions of organizations. There many benefits that come along side this integrations as well as demerits. Any organization in need of these benefits and willing to take the accompanying risks will surely take these challenges and reap from the goodies of global market. Just like any other multinational firm, Unilevers presence in the global market has helped in the continuous development of new market segment. In order to benefit from the economies of scale, the corporation shakes off the saturation in the European domestic market by gathering for the needs of inte rnational buyers. International trade is also important bearing in mind the corporations portfolio resources and products. To tap from these undoubted benefits of international trade, Unilever utilizes the various available options of internationalization. The earlier stated concept of mergers and acquisitions has given the corporation a huge milestone in venturing into international trade. Among the many firms that has entered in a n international partnership with the corporation are Pepsico which works together to market and distribute Lipton a ready-to-drink tea, Inmarko which is the leading ice cream corporation based in Russia and the imminent acquisition of Sara Lee division of body and laundry production. In a nutshell, the company has been able to secure a total of twenty acquisitionsUnilever can therefore be said to be a global corporation based on the attributes described before. This is justified by its presence in many nations and the use coordinated brands in global mar ket. It however has one centralized office in the United Kingdom which manages the entire strategy.The European Union policies which affect tariffs and free trade agreements are going to have a final trickledown effect on the revenues and operations of Unilever. The elimination of trade restrictions and barriers within the European market means that the revenues are going to rise because of easy penetration to domestic regions. The removal of all tariffs on trade is one of the major benefits enjoyed by the corporation.Economic implications emu in the United KingdomThe economic monetary union is the toleration of one currency by the European Union member countries. This move has been achieved through the development of one European Central Bank and formulation of a common monetary policy. Such adoption of single currency has elicited a series of mixed reactions due to the economic implications. Some school of design may argue that the adoption of EMU is irrelevant because it focus es strictly on the financial services sectors. The critics of Economic Monetary Union claim that putting together economies of different sizes is going to be detrimental. This will mean that the entire Europe economy will be the least common denominator. In simpler terms this will mean that the economic muscle of the member states is going to be achieved through striking a balance between the participating economies. The poorly performing economies are going to pull down the perceived successful ones. Despite this pessimistic view of EMU, there will ultimately be a lot of magnet of euro financial assets due to eliminated exchange risk and improved liquidity. In addition the stability in macroeconomic environment is very instrumental in reduction of financing and investments risks. It is no doubt that the introduction of euro as the common currency in the European Union has improved prices transparency. There are no fears by someone using euro resulting from using different currency . The firms in the Unions territory are able to comfortably compare prices without worry of actual value being ill-shapen by conventional highly volatile exchange rates. From an external point of view, the consolidated EMU area is in a position to be self sufficient and independent of the Asian or American influences. Thus partnership has a political effect. The mutual relationships between nations are going to be fostered since the bad blood is eliminated by continually partnering in the formulation and improvement framework of the common market policies. The European Union firms, in which our organization of discussion is part, are going to increase their profitability through elimination of currency exchange transaction costs. Other trade focused proponents of this worth project claim that no cent will be lost on the fluctuating exchange rates. Trading as a bloc makes Europe compete effectively with other giants in the Far East and America.

Exploring the contribution of forensic science

Exploring the contribution of rhetorical scienceForensic psychological science has proven itself to be a quite intriguing field of study. From serial killers to child detainment eggshells, the work of a forensic psychologist is involved. Forensic psychological science is the inter theatrical section between the field of psychology and the effective system (Huss, 2001). Or, as defined by the Ameri constrict out Board of Forensic Psychology (ABFP), forensic psychology is the application of the science and profession of psychology to questions and discovers relating to law and the legal system (ABFP, 2010). This profession is non restricted to just one atomic number 18a of the legal system in fact it contributes to the subspecialties of corrections, civil salute, investigations, iniquitouss, lates, and constabulary. The purpose of this paper is to let off the roles and responsibilities a forensic psychologist has in each subspecialty, review court studys and research rela tive to the subject, and discuss honourable dilemmas/ challenges and controversial issues forensic psychologists may encounter.Note passim the text the terms forensic psychologist and psychologist are used interchangeably to describe the professionIntroductionCriminalCriminal psychologists give the axe be found in divers(a) backgrounds with a wide array of roles and responsibilities. Aside from studying miserable behavior, turn psychologists work with the police departments assisting with investigations, giving advice on how to express interviews with rummys and witnesses, they provide their function as an expert witness, aid in the make for of rehabilitating an offender, and continuously research developments related to their field (Bull, Hatcher, Cooke et al, 2009). In the case of Jenkins v. U.S., 1962, it was ruled that a medical power point was no longer a requirement for an expert witness and that with the proper training and level of expertise a psychologist could straight off testify on issues relating to intellectual disorders. However in the role of an expert witness in that respect are a couple challenges that appear which are attorney contracted psychological work and the admissibility of expert testimonial in court proceedings.During a court proceeding a condemnable psychologist may be called upon to give their expert opinion roughly a matter related to the case. The purpose of an expert testimony is either to explain or give in public figureation to help in either the board or judges decision making and is related to the psychologists area of expertise (Shuman Greenburg, 2003). According to the Federal Rule of Evidence (Fed. R. Evid.) 702If scientific, technical, or a nonher(prenominal) specialized friendship will assist the trier of fact to understand the enjoin or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of an o pinion or a nonher(prenominal)wise, if (1) the testimony is based upon suitable facts or data, (2) the testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods, and (3) the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case. In cases when a psychologist is asked to be an expert witness by an attorney who is requesting information to defend his or her client, occupations may arise. An attorney seeks out a psychologist to provide expert testimony and evidence that will benefit the case of their client, not the opposing side. However, a psychologist is honorablely responsible for providing an unbiased opinion or delivery of facts regardless of which attorney contracted their serve. The pressure to be loyal to the attorney that has contracted the psychologists operate causes a problem for those psychologists who uphold the integrity of the profession. When caught in a situation where the findings of the psychologist are not aligned with the goals of the attorney, the psychologist can either give a testimony that is change to fit the requests of the attorney and risk civil liabilities and ethical complaints, or they can report the facts and risk not being called upon again. Although it is a true dilemma to regulate which direction to mastermind as a professional, upholding soulfulness integrity and that of the profession is vitally key. Based on the responsibilities outlined in the Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists (1991), forensic psychologists should shuffle a reasonable effort to provide their services in a manner that is responsible and forthright. When a the services of a psychologist are requested, they should be upfront about their position to be unbiased and only report the facts regardless of the out discern.Another challenge that surfaces with expert testimony give by a psychologist is its admissibility in court. As mentioned earlier in the Fed. R. Evid. 702, an expert testimony may be utilized if it is based on sufficient facts or data. The facts and data are what determine the reliability of the experts testimony. This becomes a factor when it must be determined whether the information presented should be admitted as evidence in the court proceeding. Prior to the case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc.(1993) in order for an experts evidence to be admitted in court it must follow the rule of general acceptance, which meant the evidence must have been obtained using scientific techniques that were generally accepted in the scientific community (Bartol Bartol, 2008). With the ruling in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. it is now left to the discretion of the judge to determine whether experts evidence should be admitted. For a psychologists is becomes a challenge to convince the judge that the information they are presenting is both valid and reliable. As a safeguard, psychologists should disclose the sources of all of the information used to form their testimony (Committee on honourable Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists, 1991).Aside from the challenges criminal psychologists face as an expert witness, they alike must address the controversial issue of whether offenders can be rehabilitated. The Bureau of Justice Statistics reported a study that looked at the level of recidivism of a group of prisoners released between 1983 and 1994. What they found was that a high division of these respective(prenominal)s were re- halted (Beck Shipley, 1997 Langan Levin, 2002). With high numbers of released prisoners returning to the prison or criminal justice system, the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs is questionable. Research is still being done on what causes disgust and what lawsuit of psychological effects do prisoners experience while incarcerated (Benson, 2003). Hope amply with a break look into what leads a person to commit a crime, better ways to rehabilitate them will be developed.JuvenileThere are two themes th at govern the juvenile justice system which are the welfare of the juvenile offender and public safety (MacArthur Foundation research Network on Adolescent Development and Juvenile Justice). The forensic psychologist in this specialty adheres to these themes in their roles and responsibilities to conduct assessments, evaluate competence, and provide therapy (Bartol Bartol, 2008). Forensic psychologists may be called upon to assess a juveniles level of threat to society, whether they are competent to make certain decisions, and decide what type of treatment can be offered to them (Bartol Bartol, 2008). Working with juveniles is not the same as working with an adult universe. One ethical dilemma that comes about when working with juveniles is whether the psychologist has sufficient competence for working with juveniles if they have only assessed adults. Outlined in the Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists (1991) under competence, it states a forensic psychologist should o nly provide services in areas that they either have specialized knowledge, education, experience or skill. Psychologists must be very careful when assessing juveniles because they do not present the same behaviors as adults whatsoever of these behaviors may be misinterpreted by the assessor if they have no knowledge of juvenile assessments (Bartol Bartol, 2008). Assessment is a very important part of the juveniles dealings with criminal justice system, so a psychologist should make every effort to ensure they are competent in this area prior to providing services. When approached about providing services as a juvenile assessor, the forensic psychologist should be honest about their limitations in competence and either make an effort to become knowledgeable about the area, or decline the request (Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists, 1991).Dual relationships also pose an ethical challenge for forensic psychologists in this area of specialty. Forensic psycholo gists should annul the role of both evaluator and treatment provider (Bartol Bartol, 2008). This is an issue because as an evaluator, the forensic psychologist is contracted with the court, who is the client. Which convey the forensic psychologist must warn the individual of the limits to confidentiality. In the role of the therapist, the client is the individual patient and there is round protection of confidentiality under patient-therapist privilege. In the case of Jaffe v. Redmond (1996) the U.S. Supreme court supported confidentiality in federal official courts. It is best answer to avoid dual roles. If the two roles must be combined, there should be an effort to avoid any negative effects to the individual client (Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists, 1991).Levels of juvenile cognitive skills and adjudicative competence are issues that are still being debated in the juvenile justice system. The MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Adolescent Dev elopment and Juvenile Justice define competence as ones ability to understand the processes associated with the trial, aid the attorney, and make important decisions. However, research has found that a number of juveniles 15 and under have noetic competency scores similar to adults with serious mental disorders (MacArthur Foundation). Which means juveniles are not capable of making reasonable decisions related to waiving their constitutional rights, confessions, and plea bargains (Mac Arthur Foundation)The goal of the juvenile justice system has been to rehabilitate offenders so that they can eventually lead healthy lives as adults, without much focus on their competency to understand the justice system (Viljoen Wingrove, 2007). The belief is that juveniles should be assessed based on their levels of development, not the standard of the justice system which is geared towards adults because some developmental issues may not be detected (Ryba, Cooper, Zapf, 2003).The decision whet her a defendant should be transferred from juvenile court to criminal court is an issue that is still being worked out in the justice system. In the case of Kent v. United states (1966) where 16-year-old Morris Kent, after confessing to his crimes, was transferred to criminal court and found guilty of housebreaking and robbery, and not guilty by reason of insanity for rape. Kents attorney argued that Kents case should have remained in juvenile court because he would have had a better chance of rehabilitation than in criminal court where he was sentenced to 30 to 90 years in a mental institution (Kent v. United States, 1966). Even today research is still being done on whether juveniles have adjudicative competence and if they should be transferred to criminal courts.CivilThe Civil Court is primarily designed to handle private disputes between individuals or organizations (Britannica Online Encyclopedia, 2010). The major roles of the forensic psychologist in the civil court setting ar e those of an assessor and evaluator. Forensic psychologists may be called upon to assess emotional factors related to traumatic or personal injury litigations assessment of psychological factors in relation to harassment, discrimination, and workers compensation disability, as well as post-mortem assessments and competency evaluations (Franklin, 2006). Forensic psychologists are also called upon in family courts to complete child custody evaluations (Franklin, 2006). Child custody evaluations conducted by psychologists tend to bring up some ethical concerns. An unresolved controversial issue in this subspecialty is that there is currently no standard practice when conducting child custody evaluations (Bartol Bartol, 2008). Many psychologists choose to use several forms of psychological testing as means to determining child custody in rejoinder to the American Psychological Associations (APA) (1994), request that there should be several methods for collecting data (Bow Quinnell, 2001). The issue with the psychological tests used is that there is no empirical evidence to support it (Bow Quinnell, 2001). To ensure adherence to the APA guidelines, the psychologists should use several techniques to conduct evaluations such as interviews, self-report studies, and psychological testing (Bartol Bartol, 2008).If a forensic psychologist is called upon to conduct a mental evaluation of a victim in sexual harassment suit, it is important that the psychologist thoroughly explain the potential use of the information gained. Informed consent now becomes an issue in this case because the victim must reveal personal information regarding their past sexual history during the evaluation (Bartol Bartol, 2008). The APA state in the Ethical Principles Psychologists and Code of Conduct section 3.10(c) When psychological services are court ordered or otherwise mandated, psychologists inform the individual of the nature of the anticipated services, including whether the service s are court ordered or mandated and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding. This can become a challenge for a forensic psychologist if the victim does not fully understand the limits of confidentiality in this situation. The forensic psychologist should take special care to explain to the client, in language they understand, that the information provided may be used in the courtroom. By doing this the psychologist is making an effort to reduce the potential for more harm to the client.One of the most controversial issues in this area of forensic psychology is physician-assisted suicide. Physician-assisted suicide takes arse when a competent individual requests that a physician prescribe a medication that will aid them in ending their life. The role of the psychologist is to determine whether or not the individual is competent to make such a decision. The state of Oregon, in 1997, enacted its Death with Dignity Act which allows for physician-assisted suicide (Oregon State) . The debate on whether other states will join Oregon is ongoing, as well as the research on the responsibilities of the forensic psychologist in this role (Bartol Bartol, 2008).The case of Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc (1993) is pivotal in this subspeciality because of the forensic psychologists role as an expert witness in civil cases. Research is still being done on how the Daubert standard affects the admissibility of expert testimony given by forensic psychologists (bartol Bartol, 2008).InvestigativeThe work of the investigative forensic psychologist may be the most popular because of the media hype over the role of criminal profiling. In the case of U.S. v. Sokolow (1989) a form of profiling was used to make an arrest based on the behavioral characteristics of drug dealers. Criminal profiling methods have been around long before the gained popularity in the media. Actually, forensic psychologists have a few other roles and responsibilities dealing with investig ations besides criminal profiling. Forensic psychologists use a mutation of techniques to link a suspect to a crime. They study the crime scene to get a better understanding of the physical and verbal behaviors of the suspect (Woodham, Hollin, Bull, 2007) they also use geographical profiling to determine the territory of a serial offender (Bartol Bartol, 2008). This information is then used to narrow down the list of possible suspects put of a larger population. Psychological autopsies are unique responsibility of investigative forensic psychologists because they are done to determine the mental state of an individual prior to their demise. Also an investigative psychologist may conduct a forensic hypnosis to aid in a witnesss or victims recall of a traumatic event. overmuch scrutiny surrounds the use of forensic hypnosis as well as criminal profiling.Despite the glamorous appeal profiling has shown on various TV shows and movies, it is not a widely accepted practice. There are several concerns that cause profiling to be a very controversial issue. From the lack of research back up its reliability and validity (Mcgrath, 2000), to the belief that profilers are creating opinions based on gut feelings (Bartol Bartol, 2008), and its inability to meet the basic expert witness standards sought under the section of the Federal Rule of Evidence 702 that states the testimony of an expert is based upon sufficient facts or data, . . . is the product of reliable principles and methods, and the witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the case (Alison, Bennell, Ormerod, Mokros, 2002). This brings about ethical challenges because forensic psychologists are obligated to provide services that are consistent with the highest standards of the profession (Committee on Ethical Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists, 1991, p. 657). As Alison, et al. (2002) assert, the methods used for profiling lead from an understanding of personality and tr ait approach that is both na-ve and outdated. Many researchers suggest that psychologists should be cautious about using profiling in criminal investigations (Bartol Bartol, 2008 Alison, et al., 2002), but if it must be done, appropriate steps should be taken to base their opinion on current empirical evidence that is available and not just on gut feelings (Torres, Boccaccini, Miller, 2006). As of today, there is still a need for research to support the use of profiling.Pretrial identification methods is another area of ethical concern for psychologists because of its vulnerability to bias and error. Many police agencies use lineups and photospreads to help witnesses identify a suspect. The issue of bias arises when either the investigator or administrator make suggestions or subtle innuendos about who the suspect is. In a study conducted by Greathouse Kovera (2009) it was found that in situations where the administrator of the lineup and photospread knew who the suspect was, the witness was more likely to correctly identify them as oppose to situations where neither the administrator nor the witness knew the suspect. To resolve an ethical dilemma of this type, it is recommended that those administering the lineup and photospread should not have knowledge of who the suspect is (Bartol Bartol, 2008).CorrectionalIn 2005 nearly half of the gyp population in prisons and jails reported having a mental health problem (James Glaze, 2006). With such a rise in the number of mentally ill inmates, the prison system may now be the nations largest provider for this special population (Fellner, 2006). Rising numbers indicate there is an even greater need for forensic psychologists working in the prison systems today. The role of a forensic psychologist is that of assessor and treatment provider. Within these roles, forensic psychologists are responsible for coordinating and ensuring the mental health programs are running properly, supervising the employees depute to these programs, and administering mental health services to the inmates that need it. The forensic psychologist also functions as a trainer for the staff and screens the staff that will be working with inmates in special mental health units and step up to help in crisis situations (Magaletta Verdeyen, 2005 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology, 2010).Working in punitive facilities can be very challenging for the forensic psychologists. The work environment is no way comparable to the application of psychology in the community or private setting. There are various risks and safety issues when dealing with criminals in this type of setting such as dual roles. The Standards for psychology services in jails, prisons, correctional facilities, and agencies address this issue by statingMental health services staff do not assume a dual role that overlaps with other functions and services (e.g., security) of the correctional agency or facility that could result in unethical dual-role relationships that risk harm to their offender or inmate clients (International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology, 2010, p. 19).At times, a correctional psychologist may act in the role of evaluator and therapist, or even as the therapist and a stand-in correctional officer. In some correctional facilities the expectation is that a psychologist is a correctional officer before any other role, thereby making it a responsibility of the psychologist to aid in doing a count of the inmates, conducting searches of an inmates cell and person, supervise inmates, and escort inmates to segregated areas (Bonner Vandecreek, 2006). Dual roles of this type create mistrust between the inmate and the psychologist because the psychologist is now viewed as another correctional officer and not someone there for the interests of the inmate. In order to eliminate the potential of dual roles, the psychologist should request in writing that they should only be a ssigned to duties that align with their particular profession and ethical standards (Bonner Vandecreek, 2006).A second ethical challenge for psychologists is avoiding situations that would intentionally cause harm to their client. The conditions of prison are not inescapably adequate for those suffering from mental illness, and many times many of them go undertreated (Fellner, 2006). The prison walls are riddled with too many inmates, violence, and victimization by other inmates and the staff (Bartol Barto, 2008).It is the responsibility of the psychologist to maintain their position as an advocate for their client and not as an additional perpetrator of their rights but this is challenging when jail and prison conditions prevent effective treatment. The IACFP (2010) contend that Offenders are incarcerated as punishment, not for punishment (p. 759). Participating in or allowing the inhumane treatment of inmates, mentally ill or not, goes against the standards for psychologists in this subspecialty. Unfortunately, psychologists may be harming unintentionally causing harm by not provided the adequate treatment needed. The climate of the prison environment will take several steps in order to see a change, but there are things a psychologist can do to resolve some of these issues. It is important that the psychologist does not fall into the same mentality of a correctional officer and participate in activities that are intended to do harm. The IACFP (2010) suggest that psychologists should avoid any delays when a request has been make for mental health services avoid imposing any biases or beliefs on or towards inmates meet the requirements of due process practice within ones personal scope of competency and continuously advocate for better mental health services in jails and prison.One controversial issue that surrounds the treatment of mentally ill inmates is their segregation from the general population. In the case if Perri v. Coughlin (1999) a severely dis ordered inmate was kept in an observational where an inmate is stripped of their clothes and placed in a cell for their protectionfor a total of 108 days without any treatment. Another issue is although inmates have the right to hold treatment, they can be forced to do so if it is determined that they are severely disordered and cause a threat to themselves and others which was argued in the case of chapiter v. Harper (1990). Forced consent to treatment stirs up controversy for psychologists because inmates may only consent to treatment for fear of privileges being taken away, such as in the case of McKune v. Lile (2002). Despite the controversies that come about it the correctional system, the research focus has been on reducing recidivism and increasing rehabilitation.PoliceThe final subspecialty of forensic psychology to be discussed is police psychology. Police psychology is the application of psychological principles to the profession of law enforcement and public safety (Bar tol Bartol, 2008). As a police psychologist the primary role is to provide psychological services to law enforcement either through counseling, employee screenings, fitness-for-duty evaluations, assessment of incidents requiring deadly force, crisis counseling, and special unit evaluations (Bartol Bartol, 2008). Police psychologists assist with the special units of police agencies including, SWAT, surety negotiations, and victims response. Just as with all the other areas forensic psychologists team up with, there are a few ethical issues that emerge.Conflicts between agency requirements and the ethical standards of the psychologist can pose a serious ethical dilemma when working with police agencies. Two ethical challenges in particular are the interrogation methods of some police agencies that lead to false confessions. Leo Ofshe (1998) assert that false confessions are a result overzealous police officers who are so eager to arrest a suspect that they tend to overlook evidenc e that may point towards the individuals innocence. Some tactics police may use to gain these confessions are deprivation, humiliation, or manipulation (Bartol Bartol, 2008). These actions cause problems for psychologists because they position is to advocate for human rights, when these actions can be viewed as violations of these rights. When psychologists are caught in situations that cause ethical conflicts they must abstain from pickings part in those behaviors. It is at the discretion of the individual psychologist whether they wish to continue consulting with police agencies that practice abusive interrogation techniques (APA, 2007). If they decide to continue their work, psychologist should consult with police on interrogation strategies that will not impede on an individuals human rights and decrease the likelihood of a false confession.Interrogation tactics have begun to come into the lime light with Americas War on Terrorism. But before then there was focus on another con troversial issue, excessive force. Excessive force has been a controversial issue for decades. Many Civil Rights protesters can probably recount various incidents when they were victims of police excessive force. However the most striking case of our time dealing with police excessive force is that of Rodney King in 1991. Surrounding the issue of excessive force is also deadly force, although its occurrence is not frequent. With both of these issues, psychologists may be asked to conduct fitness-for-duty evaluations to determine the officers ability to carry out their required duties (Bartol Bartol, 2008).A plethora of research is available for the subspecialty of police psychology. Topics ladder from cultural competency, dealing with the mentally ill, on the job stress, excessive force, employment screening, and community relations. As the research in this area progresses, enhancements can be made to the types of treatment psychologists offer.ConclusionThe field of forensic psych ology encompasses a wide range of roles and responsibilities with various contributions to the fields of law and psychology. In its short existence there have been tremendous gains in research and practical applications. As the profession of forensic psychology grows in popularity among the public, there is sure to be greater strides in the collaboration of psychology and law.

Influence of Location on Ecology Views

Influence of Location on Ecology ViewsCity, folksy and Costal backgrounds Does Location Influence our look go forth man on ecology?Rebecca Anne ChesserSummaryConservation has gradu every(prenominal)y g one and only(a) from being an issue to a select few, to now a global phenomenon. The widespread injurious aspects of human activity on the biophysical environment get to reached catastrophic levels. The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that flowerpot potentially cause dangerous climate change. We are already at risk, its not next year or next decade, its now. Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of humanist Affairs (OCHA). Although the dam historic period up until now is largely irreversible, saving is the key to limiting every further damage to the global environment. If these issues are not urgently addressed the list of sensuals on the endangered species list will exponentially increase at an alarming rate. The proximo wel fare of the planet, flora and fauna depends on how the world responds to the current global crisis. Human beings are guilty of robbing the world of its natural resources, impacting ecosystems and habitats of wild animals. Re-education of how we manage the earth and its resources, and the animals and planets which live in it, is vital for future generations. With this in mind, this poll will look to see if location, either urban, rural or coastal, has a direct effect on ones cognition and understanding of the natural world around them, and whether or not this impacts their attitudes towards conservation and animal welfare issues. This will hopefully make way for future investigate in order to raise awareness of what communities are more likely to be lax about environmental issues, and could benefit from more knowledge/conservation contrivances to improve the world in which we inhabit.Reoceanrch BackgroundMuch of the previous research in this area has foc utilize largely on cross -cultural studies, which discover the relation amidst how deal conceptualise nature and how they act in it. Tragedy of the commons is a theory proposed by Garrett Hardin, according to which individuals, acting severally and rationally according to each ones self-interest, behave contrary to the whole groups long-term best interests by depleting some common resource (Hardin, 1968). The concept is often cited in connection with sustainable development, meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in the debate over global warming. Commons force out include the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, fish stocks, national parks and any other shared resource. The tragedy of the commons occurs when individuals neglect the well-being of society in the pursuit of personalised gain and thus it is this attitude, which varies largely across cultures, which has become one of the most central, yet diverse, problems in environmental welfare decision making. A number of researchers h ave however noted more examples in which commons have been and are being successfully managed (Atran, 1986 Berkes, Feeny, McCay, Acheson, 1989 Deitz, Ostrom, Stern, 2003 Ostrom, 1999). Key factors in these successes include a closed-access system and having tender institutions in place to monitor use and punish overusers. This again shows that depending on the measures in a particular location, the outcome of peoples attitudes towards conservation and ecology can be influenced.Lopez, et al, (1997) found that US undergraduates and Itza Maya of Guatemala showed a different pattern of responding on a category-based inductive reasoning task involving mammals, indicating a clear contrast in knowledge and understanding the essential nature and central properties of animals ranging across two very different cultures.In a two part study carried out Schultz, results showed that participants instructed to crawfish the spatial relation of an animal being harmed by pollution scored sign ificantly higher in biospheric environmental clienteles than participants instructed to reside objective (Schultz 2000). This implies that concern for environmental issues is fundamentally linked to the degree to which people view themselves as part of the natural environment. This implies a potential link amongst location and knowledge of nature, and levels of concern for both environmental and animal welfare which is what this future investigation aims to distinguish.HypothesisIn relation to the previous research carried out, which illustrated that there is a link between location and understanding the essential nature and underlying properties of plants and animals, it will be expected that 1 urban dwellers will have less experience of landed estate, shore and sea life and will therefore have a lesser knowledge of the essential nature- and the underlying properties of both plants and animals, meaning they will score less than country and coastal dwellers on the knowledge of na ture section of the questionnaire. 2 This will therefore lead to urban dwellers being less enthusiastic about conservation issues, collect to rural/coastal dwellers witnessing, first hand, the effects of environmental issues damaging their surrounding areas more obviously than in less green urban areas- (oil covered birds, woodlands done for(p) etc). 3 Urban dwellers will also be less passionate regarding issues to do with the treatment of animals, due to reduced contact with them, and more physical distance from many animals, compared to living in the countryside or coastally, meaning they will also score less on both attitudes towards conservation of the environment and attitudes towards the treatment of animals sections. The null speculation would be that participants location does not directly impact their knowledge of the essential nature and underlying properties of plants and animals, nor does it directly influence their attitudes towards conservation and animal welfare.Me thodEquipmentParticipants will be shorteneded and a consent form will be completed online. Participants will then be asked to fill in an online questionnaire which should take no longer than half an hour to complete. The software platform for this online questionnaire will be TypeForm.ParticipantsParticipants will most likely be both male and egg-producing(prenominal) university and college students around the age of 18-25, with varying races and socio-economically backgrounds. Participants will be mostly self-selected to participate having chosen this study to fulfil a research participation requirement scheme (STREP) enforced By Heriot Watt University. The questionnaire may also be sent to several other students at different university and college campuses in and around Edinburgh.Data assemblyData will be collected using an online survey. The questionnaire will be organised to ensure that questions are grouped into 4 categories. Participants will receive a score for each secti on- 1 Location of the participant- including previous locations, location preferences, how often they visit coastal/country areas if they arent coastal or country dwellers etc 2 Attitudes towards conservation of the planet- such as recycling, which environmental issues they are concerned with, how green they consider their lifestyle to be etc 3 Attitudes towards how animals are treated- views on vegetarianism, hunting, animal testing, free range, animals as pets, animals in captivity etc 4 * sleek over developing a way in which I can assess participants knowledge of essential nature- and the underlying properties of both plants and animals*VariablesDue to this study being observational, no manipulation of variables has occurred. The predictor variable for this study will be location of the participants, and the three outcome variables will be 1 knowledge of the essential nature and underlying properties of plants and animals, 2 attitudes towards conservation, 3 attitudes towards ani mal welfare.MeasuresNo scales or measures exist for either the predictor variable nor the outcome variables of this study, therefore the questionnaire will be tailored to attain sufficient information from each section to allow a score to be allocated to each participant for each of the four sections. Each section will have between ten and fifteen questions. Firstly the questions will be assessing the location of the participant- most importantly whether they consider themselves to live in an urban, country, coastal or suburban area. also included in this section will be questions to do with the length of time the participant has lived in Great Britain, how often the participant engages with the outdoors, if they have any access to parks or country walks nearby, if they have a job that involves working outdoors for extended periods of time, and also basic factors such as gender, age and ethnicity. Secondly, questions will be asked about attitudes towards energy conservation. This e ncompasses recycling, travel, lifestyle choices etc, which all could be seen to negatively impact global warming and conservation. Thirdly, questions about attitudes towards the value of animals will be asked- dietary choices, opinions on animal testing, hunting sports and keeping animals in captivity.The fourth element of the questionnaire is going to be a picture match (similar to that previously conducted in Cultural Dierences in Childrens Ecological Reasoning and Psychological Closeness to Nature Evidence from Menominee and European American Children (Unswortha et al). TypeForm Software allows a picture match, so 4 pictures will be presented, two will be matched somehow- ie. Same diet, both give birth to live juvenile, both live underground, both young are called kits etc, the participant scores 1 point for every pair correctly selected. There will be other multiple choice questions in this section to further assess the participants knowledge and understanding of nature, animal s, plants and the planet. Again, the point scoring will continue- 1 point for every correct assist. For all questions there will also be an option to pass on the question, this will be in place to minimise participants randomly guessing, or beguiler in order to avoid feeling embarrassed by selecting the wrong answers.Sections will be scored using a point system for example one question could be Which do you use more- bathe or shower- due to a shower conserving water, if this answer was selected the participant would receive 2 points, if they selected bath they would receive 1 point and so on. Participants will end up with 4 scores- one for location, one for conservation, one for animal treatment and one for knowledge of nature.ie. Rural participant may score 32 out of a possible 50 for conservation, whereas an urban participant may only score 19. bitParticipants who chose to take part in this study by either signing up on the STREP system or through email, will be sent a brief if the study and a consent form. The brief will outline what the study will entail and stated that the participants will remain anonymous, with the exception of providing information regarding their age and sex, and will explain that participants have the option to withdraw from the study and ask for the data t not be used at any point. Once the consent form is signed, the participants will be asked to complete the online questionnaire. The participants will then be given a debriefing and, if applicable, be awarded their STREP credits.AnalysisThe data will be analysed using SPSS. (***Unsure which tests to use***)LimitationsThere could be many problems and limitations to this study. With time and funds restrained consume size will be limited and not representative of the entire population raising questions of the validity and ability to generalise the findings of the study. Many of the students asked to fill out the question may answer the questions untruthfully or may skip some quest ions, and some may drop out the study leading to absentminded data.ReferencesAtran, S. (1986). Hamula patrican organisation and mashaa commonstenure in Palestine. Man, 21, 271295Atran, S., Medin, D. L. and Ross, N. (2005). The cultural mind environmental decision making and cultural modeling within and across populations. Psychological freshen up 112, 744-776.Bailenson, J. N., Shum, M., Atran, S., Medin, D. L. and Coley, J. D. (2002). A birds eye viewbiological categorization and reasoning within and across cultures. Cognition 84, 1-53. Berkes, F., Feeny, D., McCay, B., Acheson, J. (1989, July 13). Thebenefit of the commons. Nature, 340, 9193.Dietz, T., Ostrom, E., Stern, P. (2003, December 12). The cope togovern the commons. Science, 302, 19071912.Gelman, S. A. (2003). The Essential Child. New York Oxford University Press.Lopez, A., Atran, S., Coley, J., Medin, D. (1997). The tree of life universal and cultural features of folkbiological taxonomies and inductions. Cognitive P sychology, 32, 251295Ostrom, E. (1999). Coping with tragedies of the commons. Annual Reviewof Political Science, 2, 493535Schultz, W. P. (2000). Empathizing with nature The eects of perspective taking on concern for environmental issues. Journal of Social Issues 56, 391-406.Walker, S. J. (1999). Culture, domain specificity and conceptual change Natural kind and artefactconcepts. British Journal of developmental Psychology, 17, 203-219.SCHOOL OF LIFE SCIENCES ETHICS COMMITTEEApplication Form (click on the grey boxes to insert text)Section A Project OverviewProject TitleCity, rural and Costal backgrounds Does Location Influence our outlook on ecology?2. Approval sought Full approval Re-Submission In principle Contact Information3. trustworthy Staff Membera) Name Thusha Rajendranb) Telephone +44 (0)131 451 34564. Investigator (if different from Responsible Staff Member)a) Nameb) Telephonec) Email5. Duration of Proposed Project February 2014 6. evaluate Start Date February 20147. Do es the proposed research involve human participants or living animals in any way?Yes No Note. Involvement of human participants includes obtaining information from people through methods such as experiments, observation, surveys or interview, or any use of previously obtained personal data, or any use of human tissue samples.If your answer to Question 7 is yes complete the rest of the form if it is no, simply sign the declaration at the end of the form.8. Please provide a brief summary of the proposed study (if possible, in less than 300 words. Include an overview of the design, variables, and other ethically-pertinent considerations). Feel free to attach a document if convenient.Section B authoritiesSection C Ethical ConsiderationsSection D Further Information Regarding Ethical ConsiderationsIf you responded No to any questions in section B, or Yes to any questions in Section C, please provide further information, indicating how you would address this issue. Please be as comprehen sive as possible, as this will speed the process for the referees and may avoid the need to contact you for further information or clarification.

Import Substitution :: essays research papers

Import SubstitutionDescribe importee substitution (Inward looking) developmental strategy, clearlyoutlining the differences amidst the first and second stage. Assess itseffectiveness in promoting economic development. Compare inward looking andoutward looking strategies and discuss the assertion that the latter is superior.The kickoff power point of Import Substitution     All present day industrial and developing countries protect theirmanufacturing industries for the domestic markets. While the industrialcountries of today rely chiefly upon the usage of relatively low tariffs,developing countries apply high tariffs or quantitative restrictions whicheither limit or completely exclude competition from their imports. securitylike that - high protection - discriminates against exports through theexplicit/ inexplicit taxation of the export activities.     Explicit taxation can take the form of export taxes whereas implicittaxation occurs as a result of the effects of protection on the counterchange rate.As your protection level increases, your exchange rate level volition decrease inorder to ensure the necessary equilibrium of the balance of payments and thelower the amount of domestic currency exporters receive per unit of foreignexchange earned.     There is no need for high protection at the first stage of importsubstitution in the replacement of the imports of non-durable consumer goods(clothing, shoes, household goods, textile fabrics, leather, timberland and othertypes of inputs) since these commodities exist in the developing countries thatare at the initial frontier of industrialization.     The commodities I mentioned are intensive in unskilled labor, the scaleof return is relatively low, and costs do non rise substantially at lower outputlevels. The production of the commodities do not involve the use of forward-looking technology or highly educated workers and sup pliers for parts,components, materials and accessories are not necessary for highly efficientoperations.     An argument for infant industry protection and promotion is do for the"easy" stage, that being the first stage of import substitution because eventhough the domestic production of the commodities generates external economiesin the form of labor training, entrepreneurial development and the spread oftechnology, there is a viable argument for infant industry protection becausewithout the shielding from larger, more sophisticated companies, these infantindustries will be crushed and overwhelmed by exceeding costs, non-competitiveness due to the lack of highly skilled laborers and the simple factthat these infant industries are technologically incompetent.The Second Stage of Import Substitution     I see the first stage of import substitution as a temporary requirementbecause the domestic production rises since it not only provides for increasesin consumption but it also replaces imports. The rate of this growth howeverwill decline as soon as the process of import substitution is completed.

Not Just Another Sorority Chick :: Greek Life College Sororities Fraternities Essays

Not Just Another Sorority ChickRandall Bass writes in his book Border Texts A culture is a network of beliefs, customs, practices, behaviors, and values. A community is a network of human relationships. The two together-culture and community-go a long way toward defining how and when we looking a experience of belonging and connection to our surroundings. (Bass 111). Essentially, these two concepts can go hand in hand. An individual can belong to a community that has its own culture and therefore, feel that they belong. This definition clearly describes the community that I belong to, which happens to be a sorority. Greek organizations, which include sororities and fraternities, are organizations in which appendages can discriminate (not by racecourse but rather by personality) in the process of selecting new members. A sorority is a Greek organization that unites college women under a unique culture root in the virtue of sisterhood. Its members are obviously female, at least 18 y ears of age and college students. There are two types of sororities typically white sororities and swart sororities. Typically white sororities usually have white members, but they accept women of all different races. Black sororities traditionally have black members, but I am unsure if they would ever accept a woman from a different race. The same goes for fraternities, which is the other half of Greek organizations. There are typically white fraternities and black fraternities with the same guidelines. All four of these different organizations make up the concept of Greek life. They are all similar but they each have their own ideas and rituals that set them apart and make them unique and individual. Regardless of what they chose to do in their own chapter, all Greek organizations on campus at Oakland University essential abide by the following three rules no hazing, no underage drinking, and all members must maintain a 2.0 GPA to remain in unplayful standing. These rules will hopefully crush any stereotypes that people have about Greek organizations, like we only party and drink, we haze our new members before go membership, or that we are all unintelligent. If any of these rules are broken, then the organization could be fined, put on probation, or even removed all together. aside from these basic guidelines, there is one other thing that is important to Greek life the value of loyalty. A members first loyalty belongs to the chapter that they are a member of, but loyalty also extends to all other chapters as well.

The Power of Love in Louisa May Alcott Little Women Essay -- Louisa Ma

The Power of Love in Little Women Truly, love does do miracles (335) The March family portrayed in Louisa whitethorn Alcotts Little Women, was the classic American family. The father is fighting in war, the mother is all knowing and wise and the quaternity daughters are budding seeds of independence. In the beginning of the novel we are introduced to all four of the sisters. Meg, the oldest, is wise and very concerned with class and the styles of the times. Jo was the least like either of her sisters. She longs to be a boy and not have to worry about such petty things as her hair and what she is wearing. Beth is a kind gentle disposition who is always contented with what she has. Amy, the youngest, is very conceited. She is always concerned with her looks and who she will marry. Its so dreadful to be poor sighed Meg, looking down at her old dress. I dont call back its fair for some girls to have plenty of pretty things and other girls nothing at all, added little Amy, with an injured sniff. We have Father and Mother and each other, tell Beth contentedly, from her corner . . . . Jo immediately sat up, put her hands in her pockets, and began to whistle. Dont Jo-its so boyishAmy said Thats why I do it (p.3-4). Though different in many ways, they all loved each other. It was, however, love from, and for, other people that changed them all in so many ways. Being the oldest sister, Meg felt a lot of pressure on her to marry into the right class. She longed for pretty things and large house. She wasnt as conceited as Amy, but continually let Jo know how let down in her she was. Jos unladylike tendencies disgusted her. After going to a coming out party for Annie Moffat, Meg was a changed pers... ...n any other love. In her mulct life she changed many people for the better. The March family survived many hardships and surpassed many obstacles. Without the love for each other, they wouldnt have made so far. Many years later, Mrs. an Mr. March are sitting back, watching their daughters and grandchildren romp in the orchard. They both see how much they have all grown and changed, Mrs. March turn to Mr. March and says, Truly, love does lap miracles How very, very happy they must be(335) Work CitedAlcott, Louisa May. Little Women. New York Signet, 1983.Douglas, Ann. Introduction. Little Women. By Louisa May Alcott. New York Signet, 1983. vii-xxvii.Elbert, Sarah. A Hunger for Home Louisa May Alcott and Little Women. Philadelphia Temple Press, 1984.Hollander, Anne. Portraying Little Women Through the Ages. New York Times 15 Apr. 1994.